美国大城市交通政策发展经验启示

2012/5/30 1 Beijing, China 24 May 2012 World Metropolitan Transport Development Forum 2012 Professor Vukan R. Vuchic University of Pennsylvania Lessons Learned from American Urban Transportation Policies 世界大城市交通发展论坛 2012 Vukan R. Vuchic 教授 宾夕法尼亚大学 美国大城市交通政策发展经验启示 中国北京 2012年 5月 24日 Presentation Outline 提纲  1. Rapid increase of private car ownership in American cities 快速增长的美国城市私家车保有量  2. Measures to accommodate car 小汽车追随型措施  3. Neglect of public transit, bicycles and pedestrians 忽视公共交通、自行车和行人 4. Lack of coordinated transportation policies 交通政策 缺乏协调  5. Car dependency and its problems Photos - P 汽车依赖及其产生的问题 图片 -P  6. Evolution of urban transport policies: Great Britain, Germany, Singapore, USA P 城市交通政策的演变：英国、德国、新加坡、美国 P 2012/5/30 2 Presentation Outline  7. Lessons from America: goals and public interest vs. short-term solution and lobbies 来自美国的经验教训：目标、公共利益 VS短期解决方案、游说  8. Balanced transportation implementation policies P 平衡交通政策的实施  9. Review of city categories by transportation conditions P 不同交通运输条件的城市回顾 P  10. Lessons from America and Recommendations for countries in transition 美国交通发展 经验教训 和对转型中国家的 建议 提纲 1. Rapid increase of private car ownership in American cities  United States was the first country experiencing rapid increase in private car use (1920-30s, 1950-60s) 美国是世界上第一个经历私家车快速增长的国家 (1920-30s, 1950-60s)  Results: shift of travel from transit and walking to private cars 结果：从公共交通及步行的 出行 方式转变为私家车出行方式  Personal mobility improved 提高个人机动性  Traffic congestion increased with noise, pollution and accidents 伴随交通拥堵，噪音、污染与交通事故不断增加  Environment less friendly to pedestrians 环境愈发不利于步行  Popularity of cars created pressure for construction of large highways and parking garages 小 汽车的普及给大型公路和停车场建设带来压力 快速增长的美国私家车保有量 2012/5/30 3 2. Measures to accommodate cars  Popular pressure to accommodate cars was strongly encouraged by lobbies of car manufacturers, highway construction and oil companies 汽车制造商、公路建设公司以及石油公司的游说 强烈 刺激了小汽车的增长  The culmination of policies encouraging travel by car through reconstruction of urban areas was the adoption by US Congress (Parliament) in 1956 of the plan to construct a 65,000-km national network of Interstate Highways in 15 years at a cost of $41 billion 1956年美国国会（议会）采纳了在 15年内耗资 410亿美元修建 65000公里长的国家州际公路网络的计划，从而使通过基础设施建设鼓励汽车出行的政策达到顶峰  Many Interstate Highways were designed to penetration center cities 很多州际公路都被规划为穿过中心城市的道路 小汽车追随政策 3.1 Neglect of public transit, bicycles and pedestrians  Most cities in America failed to improve alternative modes of travel: public transit, bicycles and pedestrians 美国大部分城市未能及时改善替代出行方式：公共交通、自行车和 步行  Urban public transit was considered needed only to serve persons who cannot use cars (young, old, non-drivers, low-income) and to assist carrying commuter peaks in large cities 城市公共交通系统被认为只适用于不能开车出行的人群（少年、老人、无驾驶执照者和低收入人群），并辅助满足大城市高峰期通勤需求  Transit companies were forced to replace electric trams by diesel buses which were considered “ more flexible.” Actually, buses were much less attractive to passengers than more comfortable, reliable and permanent rail systems 交通运输公司被迫使用“更灵活”的柴油地面公交替代有轨电车。事实上， 轨道 交通系统比地面公交更舒适、更安全，更稳定，对乘客的吸引力也更大 忽视公共交通、自行车和步行 2012/5/30 4 3.2 Neglect of transit, bicycles and pedestrians  Paving tramway tracks into street lanes was claimed to increase street capacity. Actually, such conversion increased number of vehicles, but decreased capacity in terms of persons carried, resulting in increased street congestion 将有轨电车的轨道改造为机动车车道被认为是可以增加街道容量的方法。事实上，这种转变虽然增加了行驶车辆，但却降低了载客能力，从而加剧了交通拥堵  Mixing buses with general traffic made transit less competitive with private cars 将地面公交和一般交通混在一起，导致公共交通与私家车相比毫无竞争优势  Improvements for driving and neglect of transit caused further shift of travel from transit to cars, creating the “ Vicious circle of urban transportation” 驾驶环境的改善和对公共交通的忽视进一步使出行方式由公共交通转向私家车，进而导致“城市交通恶性循环” 忽视公共交通、自行车和步行 4. Lack of coordinated transportation policies  The massive investment in highways was complemented by extensive provision of subsidized parking even in central cities, low taxes on cars and other measures making car driving extremely cheap, particularly on out-of-pocket basis 对公路的大规模投资、广泛提供的停车补贴（甚至在中心城区）、低廉的汽车税以及其他措施使开车出行成本很便宜，特别是付现成本非常少  While federal government made these extensive investments into highways and car use, it provided no financing for urban transit nor for intercity passenger railways until the late 1960s. 虽然联邦政府向公路和汽车使用投入了大量资金，但是直到 20世纪六十年代才开始为城市公共交通和城际客运铁路提资支持  Bicycles, pedestrians and other modes were mostly ignored in transportation planning until 1991 在 1991年之前，交通规划大多忽视了自行车、行人和其他替代交通方式 交通政策缺乏协调 2012/5/30 5 5.1 Car dependency and its problems  As can be seen, when car ownership increased, transport policies in most American cities focused on rebuilding cities to be totally car-based 可以看出，随着小汽车保有量的增加，美国大部分城市的交通政策核心是通过基础设施建设将城市改建为完全以汽车为 主 的城市  Car-dependent cities are those in which a large portion of population depends only on car to travel 在以汽车为基础的城市，大部分人只开车出行  Problems of car-dependent cities: their structure is scaled to cars, rather than persons. This results not only in different travel, but different character of the city and its livability 汽车依赖性城市面临的问题：城市结构适应的是汽车而不是人。这不仅导致出行方式发生变化，也改变了城市特点和宜居性  Livability or quality of life includes economic viability, good social relations and environmental conditions of the city 宜居，即生活质量，包括经济生存能力、良好的社会关系以及城市环境 汽车依赖性及其产生的问题 5.2 Car dependency There is a strong social segregation between car users and non-car users 汽车使用者与非汽车使用者之间存在明显的社会隔离 Any disturbance in highway travel (increased price of fuel, flood or earthquake, etc.) paralyzes the entire city 公路出行方式的任何变动（油价上涨、发生洪水或地震等）都会使整个城市陷入瘫痪状态 Central cities experience chronic traffic congestion and less sustainable suburban housing is stimulated 中心城市经历了长期 的交通拥堵，刺激了不可持续的郊区住房进一步兴起 Pro-highway policies created environmental problems and “ freeway rebellion” movement, leading to policy revisions公路保护政策带来了环境问题，并引发了“反对高速公路”运动， 导致 政策的重新修订 汽车依赖性 2012/5/30 6 Illustrations Examples of car-dependent cities 汽车依赖型城市实例 图示 2012/5/30 7 2012/5/30 8 2012/5/30 9 2012/5/30 10 6.1 Evolution of urban transport policies  U.S. experiences from 1920 to 1970 showed that: 美国 1920年到 1970年的经验表明： - Urban transportation is very complex and has a major impact on the type of city and quality of life 城市交通非常复杂，对城市类型和生活质量有重要影响 - There is an inherent conflict between individuals’ choice of mode and optimal transportation system 在个人出行方式选择和交通系统最优化之间存在内在矛盾 - Short-term “popular” solution may lead to permanent problems of congestion and decay 短期的“流行”的解决方案可能会导致拥堵 和效果递减等 永久性的问题 城市交通政策演变 2012/5/30 11 6.1 Evolution of urban transport policies  Several countries organized major studies of urban transportation to define problems and determine solutions. The basic questions were raised: 一些 国家 组织开展了城市交通 的大型研究，来 明确问题并确定解决 方案。 提出以下基本 问题 ： • What type of cities do we want to have? 我们 想要什么样的城市？ • What transportation policies should be used to achieve such cities? 什么 交通 政策能够实现 这样的 城市？ 城市交通政策演变 6.2 Evolution of policies: Great Britain  Between the 1960s and 1990s several countries organized studies by experts or by political leaders 20世纪 60年代 至 20世纪90年代，一些国家的专家或政界领导人组织了相关 研究工作  In Great Britain, Colin Buchanan’s book “ Traffic in Towns” correctly found that high car ownership is not a problem in small towns, but if large cities depend on cars, they would have to be built with huge highways and parking garages 在 英国， Colin Buchanan的著作《城市里的交通》明确的提出 高 汽车拥有量在 小城镇不是问题， 但是大城市如果依赖 汽车 ，就 必须建设庞大的 公路和 停车场（库 ）网络 政策演变：英国 2012/5/30 12 6.3 Evolution of policies: Great Britain  However, Buchanan made several serious mistakes: 然而 ， Buchanan 却存在几 个严重 的误区： - Did not realize that independent, high-performance transit is needed to compete with private cars 没有 认识 到能够与私家车竞争的独立的、高性能公共交通的必要性 - Ignored rail transit, considered transit are buses only! 忽略有轨 公共交通，认为公共交通 只有地面公交！ - Suggested that traffic congestion could be solved by providing more buses, not realizing that buses in mixed traffic cannot attract passengers from private cars! 建议可以通过提供更多地面公交来解决交通拥堵，却没有认识到混合交通下，地面公交并不能吸引拥有私家车的乘客！  Consequently, Buchanan’ s report had little influence on urban transport in Great Britain 因此 ， Buchanan的报告 对 英国城市交通 影响不大 政策演变：英国 6.4 Evolution of policies: Germany  In Germany a “ Committee of Experts” had much better understanding of transport and cities. It clearly defined principles of mobility and its impacts on cities’ livability 在 德国，“专家委员会”对交通和城市有更透彻的理解。该委员会明确定义 了机动性原则及其对城市宜居性的影响  The Committee stressed the importance of improving car as well as transit systems in designing people-friendly cities 该 委员会在设计人居友好型城市时， 强调同时改进 汽车及公共交通系统的重要性  It pointed out that transit must be given as much advantage as possible, particularly separate ways from congested streets 该 委员会指出必须给公共交通提供尽可能多的有利条件，尤其是从拥堵的街道中分离出专用车道  Rail systems are superior modes to attract passengers 轨道 交通系统 是优先吸引 乘客 的交通方式 政策演变：德国 2012/5/30 13 6.5 Evolution of policies: Germany and Singapore  The Committee of Experts suggested petrol tax for financing of both streets and transit in cities; Parliament adopted that proposal, leading to construction of very livable cities in Germany 德国专家委员会 建议将燃油税用于城市街道和公共交通融资；议会采纳了这项提议，引领了德国宜居城市建设浪潮  Singapore founded in 1975 Land Transport Authority which provided a coordinated planning, construction and operation for all modes of transport 新加坡 在 1975年成立新加坡陆路交通管理局，该 机构的职能是对 所有交通方式进行协调规划、建设及 运营  LTA introduced many innovations, such as road pricing, integration of all modes and full control of parking. It became one of world’ s leading cities in providing balanced transport 新加坡陆路交通管理局 引入了很多创新方法，如道路收费、交通方式整合及停车调控。新加坡成为世界上率先提供平衡交通的城市之一 政策演变：德国与新加坡 6.6 Evolution of policies: United States  In the USA, strong criticism of the extreme favoring of highways led in the late 1960s to abandonment of plans for urban freeways in New York, Philadelphia, Boston, San Francisco and many other cities 在 美国，对公路的极度偏爱 引起民众的 强烈谴责，从而使美国在 20世纪 60年代放弃了在纽约、宾西法尼亚、波士顿、旧金山及很多其他城市建设高速公路的 计划  Federal government began to promote and finance transit: 联邦政府开始改进公共交通系统，并拨付相关经费： - New metro systems, such as Washington, Miami and Los Angeles. 在华盛顿、迈阿密和洛杉矶等城市建设新地铁系统。 - Light Rail Transit -LRT- has been built in about 20 cities. In many cities (Portland, Denver, San Diego) LRT was used as the main element for making cities more livable 在大约 20个城市修建了轻轨交通系统（ LRT）。很多城市（波特兰、丹佛、圣地亚哥）认为LRT是使城市更加宜居的主要 因素 政策演变：美国 2012/5/30 14 6.7 Evolution of policies: United States  - Major bus improvements and Bus Rapid Transit -BRT- were made, most with good results. A major obstacle has been that in many cities separated busways were later degraded into high-occupancy vehicle -HOV- lanes. 地面公交系统得到了很大的改进，建立了快速公交系统（ BRT），并且大部分都取得了很好的效果。但许多城市的地面公交专用车道后来退化为高乘载专用车道（ HOV），成为地面公交系统发展的主要障碍  - Government also supports research and development of transit 政府 也 支持公共交通研发  - Many travel demand management -TDM- measures have been successfully introduced 很多交通需求管理措施（ TDM） 已经被成功引入 政策演变：美国 6.8 Evolution of policies: United States  A fundamental improvement in urban transportation came with the federal transportation law of 1991, Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act – ISTEA 伴随 着 1991年的联邦交通法和综合地面运输效率方案（ ISTEA）的推行，城市交通发生了根本 改变  ISTEA emphasized efficiency and importance of integration of different modes, which led to much stronger emphasis on public transit, building of bicycle paths and realization that livable cities must be pedestrian-oriented, rather than car dependent ISTEA强调效率与不同交通方式整合的重要性，从而更重视公共交通和自行车道建设，并且认识到了宜居城市应该是以行人而不是以汽车 为主 政策演变：美国 2012/5/30 15 7.1 Lessons from America: goals and public interest vs. short-term solutions and lobbies  America, followed by other countries, has learned that high car ownership creates a conflict between car convenience for individual persons and system efficiency which transit offers 美国认识到 高 小汽车保有量将造成私家车便利性与 公共 交通系统 效率之间的矛盾，其他国家也随之认识到这一问题  Accommodation of wide use of cars creates unattractive and inefficient cities 小汽车的频繁使用导致城市丧失吸引力， 效率 低下  Transportation systems consisting of several coordinated modes are much more efficient than dependence of one mode only, such as the car, bicycle or public transit 多交通方式协调构成 的交通系统 比单一交通 方式（ 如小汽车 、自行车或公共交通）的效率要高得多 来自美国的教训：目标和公共利益 VS短期解决方案和游说 7.2 Goals vs. short-term solutions  The goal in transport planning must not be maximum vehicle movement, but a livable, pedestrian-friendly city 交通规划的目标是创造一个宜居的、方便行人出行的城市，而不是实现 车辆机动性最大化  An efficient, balanced transport system for livable city requires government leadership in policies, planning and implementation. U.S. law requires all cities to have “ metropolitan planning organizations” for this task 建设 宜居城市所要求的有效、平衡的交通系统需要政策、规划和实施方面的领导力量。美国法律要求所有的城市成立 “大都市圈规划组织” ，来负责此项 任务。  These complex relationships in urban transport are shown in the following charts 城市交通的这些复杂关系如下图所示。 目标与短期解决方案 2012/5/30 16 7.3 Goals: functional role of transport in a city City Economy Government Industry Environment Housing Social conditions Culture and recreation Transport 交通 文化娱乐 社会条件 住房 政府 经济 工业 环境 城市 目标：交通在城市中的功能定位 7.4 Structure of urban transport planning 城市交通规划结构 等级 4 单一设施的规划、设计与运营 等级 3 单一方式网络 /系统协调 等级 2 多种方式网络 /系统整合 等级 1 城市 -交通平衡 广场 十字路口 单行线 城市街道 交通网络 公共交通 汽车 -公路 行人 城市 经济 住房 交通 社会状态 环境 行人 公共交通 高速公路 城市街道 交通网络 广场 交叉 单行线 2012/5/30 17 8.1 Balanced transportation implementation policies 平衡交通政策实施 Transportation policies should balance Individual Behavior vs. System Optimum by two sets of policies: 交通政策应通过两套政策来平衡 个人行为与系统优化： Transit incentives 交通激励措施 : building high-quality, competitive transit systems, fare innovations, better attitude toward passengers, marketing, etc.建立优质、有竞争力的公共交通系统，进行收费改革，改善对乘客的态度，进行市场调控等 Transit incentives are easily justified and popular 公共交通激励措施容易正当化并且受欢迎  Auto disincentives 汽车抑制措施 : traffic reduction policies, economic measures (parking rates and structure, road pricing)交通减排政策、经济举措（停车收费与停车结构优化、 道路收费 ） Politically more challenging, but justified and rational. 政策上具有更多的挑战，但是正当合理 8.2 Balanced transportation  The basic problem: in selecting travel mode, travelers compare the small direct costs for cars with transit fares, making transit subsidies necessary 基本问题：在选择出行方式时，出行者会对汽车 出行的 直接成本与公共交通票价进行比较 ，这就使提供 公共交通 补贴十分必要 。  Choice of modes can be changed toward transit if some of the fixed costs and external costs are charged to users. That is the purpose of petrol and parking taxes, road pricing and similar measures – see the two diagrams 如果向汽车使用者收取部分固定成本和外部成本，那么他们可能会转向选择公共交通方式。这就是收取燃油税、停车费、道路费和类似费用的目的 -如下面 两个 图表所示。 平衡交通 2012/5/30 18 0 2 4